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Fish Oil

From WikiSM

Alternative Names

  • Omega-3 Fish Oil
  • Fish Oil Supplement
  • Marine Omega-3 Supplement
  • Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplement
  • EPA/DHA Supplement
  • Marine Oil Supplement
  • Long-Chain Omega-3 Supplement
  • Fish Body Oil
  • Marine Fish Oil
  • Omega-3 Oil

Background

  • This page refers to the supplement fish oil, often called omega 3

History

  • Fish oils have been used medicinally for centuries, with references dating back to ancient Greece and Rome.[1]
  • Cod liver oil became a popular treatment in Europe during the 18th and 19th centuries, particularly for rickets, malnutrition, and rheumatic diseases.[2]
  • Interest in fish oil increased during the 1970s after studies of Greenland Inuit populations suggested a link between marine-based diets and lower rates of cardiovascular disease.[3]
  • Modern research identified the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA as the primary bioactive components responsible for many of fish oil's physiological effects.[4]

Introduction

Omega 3 fatty acids and sources[5]

General

  • Fish oil is a dietary supplement derived from the tissues of oily fish and is a rich source of omega-3 fatty acids
  • The primary omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil are eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
  • Fish oil is available in multiple forms, including triglyceride, ethyl ester, re-esterified triglyceride, and phospholipid formulations
  • Common dietary sources of fish oil include salmon, mackerel, sardines, herring, anchovies, and tuna
  • Fish oil supplements are commonly used to support cardiovascular, neurological, ocular, musculoskeletal, and general health

Mechanism

  • EPA and DHA are incorporated into cell membranes and influence cellular signaling
  • Omega-3 fatty acids help regulate inflammatory pathways
  • Fish oil lowers triglyceride production in the liver
  • DHA is a major structural component of the brain and retina
  • Fish oil may support recovery, joint health, and muscle function

Formulations

  • Fish Oil Concentrate – Standard EPA and DHA supplement
  • Triglyceride (TG) – Natural form found in fish oil
  • Ethyl Ester (EE) – Concentrated omega-3 formulation
  • Re-Esterified Triglyceride (rTG) – Concentrated formulation with improved absorption
  • Prescription Omega-3 – Purified EPA or EPA/DHA products
  • Cod Liver Oil – Fish oil containing vitamins A and D
  • Krill Oil – Omega-3 source derived from krill

Controversy

  • Cardiovascular benefits remain debated in healthy individuals
  • Evidence for performance enhancement is inconsistent
  • Clinical effects on inflammation vary by condition
  • Typical doses do not appear to significantly increase bleeding risk
  • Product quality and omega-3 content vary between brands
  • Sustainability of marine harvesting remains a concern
  • Evidence for cancer prevention is limited

Athletic Performance Benefits

Major source of fish oil extraction and Average production of fish oil contributed by various fish byproducts[6]

Recovery

  • May reduce delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS)[7]
  • May improve recovery following intense training sessions
  • May reduce exercise-induced muscle damage markers
  • May help athletes tolerate higher training volumes

Muscle Function

  • May support muscle protein synthesis[8]
  • May improve neuromuscular function
  • May help preserve muscle mass during periods of inactivity
  • May support healthy muscle adaptation to training

Strength and Power

  • May improve strength gains during resistance training
  • May improve force production in some athletes[9]
  • May enhance muscle quality and contractile function
  • Evidence for improvements in power output remains mixed

Endurance Performance

  • May improve exercise economy
  • May reduce oxygen consumption during submaximal exercise[10]
  • May support cardiovascular efficiency during prolonged activity
  • Direct improvements in endurance performance remain inconsistent

Brain Health and Concussion

  • DHA is a major structural component of the brain
  • May support cognitive function during athletic participation
  • May reduce biomarkers associated with repetitive head impacts.[11]
  • Research continues regarding potential concussion-related benefits

Joint Health and Inflammation

  • May help regulate exercise-related inflammation
  • May reduce joint pain and stiffness in some individuals
  • May support joint comfort during training and competition
  • May improve recovery from repetitive mechanical stress
  • Benefits appear greatest in athletes with higher inflammatory loads

Other Health Benefits

Pros and cons of fish oil in diet[12]

Cardiovascular Health

  • May lower triglyceride levels[13]
  • May support overall cardiovascular health
  • May modestly reduce blood pressure in some individuals
  • May improve endothelial function and vascular health
  • Prescription omega-3 products are used to treat severe hypertriglyceridemia

Brain and Cognitive Health

  • DHA is a major structural component of the brain
  • May support normal cognitive function throughout life
  • May support memory and attention in some populations
  • May help maintain brain health with aging
  • Research on prevention of cognitive decline remains ongoing

Eye Health

  • DHA is highly concentrated within the retina
  • May support normal visual function
  • May help maintain retinal health
  • May improve symptoms of dry eye disease in some individuals[14]

Pregnancy and Early Development

  • DHA contributes to fetal brain development
  • DHA contributes to fetal retinal development
  • Omega-3 intake is commonly recommended during pregnancy
  • May support infant neurodevelopment
  • Maternal omega-3 status influences fetal DHA availability

Mental Health

  • May support overall emotional well-being
  • May help regulate mood in some individuals
  • EPA-rich formulations have been studied in depressive disorders[15]
  • Benefits appear to vary between individuals and conditions

Inflammatory Conditions

  • May help regulate inflammatory pathways
  • May reduce symptoms in some inflammatory disorders
  • Has been studied in rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease[16]
  • Clinical response varies by condition and dose

Healthy Aging

  • May support cardiovascular health with aging
  • May help maintain muscle mass and function in older adults
  • May support cognitive and visual health later in life
  • Has been studied as part of healthy aging and longevity strategies

Skin Health

  • May support skin barrier function
  • May help maintain skin hydration
  • May help regulate inflammatory skin conditions
  • Has been studied in eczema and psoriasis[17]

Immune Function

  • Omega-3 fatty acids influence immune cell signaling
  • May help regulate immune responses
  • Supports production of specialized pro-resolving mediators
  • Effects on infection prevention remain uncertain

Dosing

  • General health doses often provide 250–500 mg/day EPA + DHA
  • Athlete-focused dosing commonly ranges from 1–3 g/day EPA + DHA[18]
  • Triglyceride-lowering doses are usually higher and should be clinician-directed[19]
  • Dose should be based on combined EPA + DHA, not total fish oil
  • Taking fish oil with meals may improve absorption and reduce GI symptoms

Safety Profile

  • Fish oil is generally well tolerated at typical supplement doses
  • The NIH notes omega-3 supplements are usually safe when used appropriately[20]
  • Very high doses may increase bleeding risk in susceptible individuals
  • Product quality varies between over-the-counter brands
  • Third-party testing is preferred for athletes and competitive populations

Adverse Effects

  • Fishy aftertaste or “fish burps” are common
  • Nausea, reflux, loose stools, and abdominal discomfort may occur
  • Higher doses may increase bruising or bleeding tendency
  • Cod liver oil may cause excess vitamin A or D intake if overused
  • Rare allergic reactions may occur in patients with fish or seafood allergy

Pharmacokinetics

Interactive mechanisms of neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, and oxidative stress in neurological disorders[21]
  • EPA and DHA are absorbed in the small intestine
  • Absorption improves when taken with a fat-containing meal
  • Omega-3 fatty acids are transported in chylomicrons and lipoproteins
  • EPA and DHA are incorporated into plasma, red blood cells, and cell membranes
  • Tissue omega-3 levels increase gradually over weeks to months

Interactions

  • May have additive effects with anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications
  • May modestly lower blood pressure when combined with antihypertensive therapy
  • May increase LDL cholesterol in some patients at high doses
  • Avoid combining multiple omega-3 products without dose tracking
  • Discuss use before surgery or procedures if taking high doses

WADA Considerations

  • Fish oil is not prohibited by WADA[22]
  • Athletes should still use third-party tested products
  • NSF Certified for Sport or Informed Sport products are preferred
  • Contaminated supplements remain a general anti-doping risk
  • Athletes are responsible for all substances found in their body

See Also

References

  1. ↑ Guy RA. The History of Cod Liver Oil as a Remedy. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine. 1923;26(2):112-116.
  2. ↑ Rajakumar K. Vitamin D, Cod-Liver Oil, Sunlight, and Rickets: A Historical Perspective. Pediatrics. 2003.
  3. ↑ Dyerberg J, Bang HO. Lipid metabolism, atherogenesis, and haemostasis in Eskimos. Lancet. 1979;2(8140):433-435.
  4. ↑ Leaf A, Weber PC. Cardiovascular effects of n-3 fatty acids. New England Journal of Medicine. 1988;318(9):549-557.
  5. ↑ D’Angelo, S. T. E. F. A. N. I. A., Giuseppe Madonna, and Davide Di Palma. "Effects of fish oil supplementation in the sport performance." J. Phys. Educ. Sport 20.Suppl. S4 (2020): 2322-2329.
  6. ↑ Velikanov, Nikolay L., and Vladimir A. Naumov. "Transportation of fish oil through a pipeline by a single-screw pump." (2024).
  7. ↑ Ochi E, Tsuchiya Y. Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Skeletal Muscle Health. Marine Drugs. 2018;16(12):452.
  8. ↑ Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, et al. Clinical Science. 2011;121(6):267-278.
  9. ↑ Da Boit M, Sibson R, Sivasubramaniam S, et al. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2017;105(1):151-158.
  10. ↑ Peoples GE, McLennan PL, Howe PRC, Groeller H. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology. 2008;52(6):540-547.
  11. ↑ Oliver JM, Jones MT, Kirk KM, et al. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise. 2016;48(6):974-982.
  12. ↑ Sikka, Priyanshi, et al. "Exploring the therapeutic potential of omega-3 fatty acids in depression." Environmental Science and Pollution Research 28.32 (2021): 43021-43034.
  13. ↑ Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al. Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691.
  14. ↑ Bhargava R, Kumar P, Phogat H, Kaur A, Kumar M. Cornea. 2015;34(4):413-420.
  15. ↑ Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al. Translational Psychiatry. 2019;9:190.
  16. ↑ Calder PC. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta. 2015;1851(4):469-484.
  17. ↑ Vaughn AR, Branum A, Sivamani RK. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2018;19(12):3661.
  18. ↑ Ritz MS. Promoting Optimal Omega-3 Fatty Acid Status in Athletes. Gatorade Sports Science Institute.
  19. ↑ Skulas-Ray AC, Wilson PWF, Harris WS, et al. Circulation. 2019;140(12):e673-e691.
  20. ↑ National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals. Accessed June 10, 2026.
  21. ↑ Li, Miao, Zhiqiang Li, and Yuying Fan. "Omega-3 fatty acids: multi-target mechanisms and therapeutic applications in neurodevelopmental disorders and epilepsy." Frontiers in nutrition 12 (2025): 1598588.
  22. ↑ World Anti-Doping Agency. The Prohibited List. Accessed June 10, 2026.
Created by:
John Kiel on 10 June 2026 19:39:36
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Last edited:
12 June 2026 14:47:51
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